ABSTRACT
Background: Secondary lymphoid organs provide the adequate microenvironment for the development of antigen (Ag)-specific immune responses. The tight collaboration between CD4+ T cells and B cells in germinal centers is crucial to shape B cell fate and optimize antibody maturation. Dissecting these immune interactions remains challenging in humans, and animal models do not always recapitulate human physiology. To address this issue, we developed an in vitro 3D model of a human lymphoid organ. The model relies on a microfluidic device, enabling primary human cells to self-organize in an extracellular matrix (ECM) under continuous fluid perfusion. We applied this Lymphoid Organ-Chip (LO chip) system to the analysis of B cell recall responses to SARS-CoV-2 antigens. Method(s): We used a two-channel microfluidic Chip S1 from Emulate, where the top channel is perfused with antigen (spike protein or SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine), while the bottom channel contains PBMC (n = 14 independent donors) seeded at high-density in a collagen-based ECM. Immune cell division and cluster formation were monitored by confocal imaging, plasmablast differentiation and spike-specific B cell amplification by flow cytometry, antibody secretion by a cell-based binding assay (S-flow). Result(s): Chip perfusion with the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein for 6 days resulted in the induction CD38hiCD27hi plasmablast maturation compared to an irrelevant BSA protein (P< 0.0001). Using fluorescent spike as a probe, we observed a strong amplification of spike-specific B cell (from 3.7 to 140-fold increase). In line with this rapid memory B cell response, spike-specific antibodies production could be detected as early as day 6 of culture. Spike perfusion also induced CD4+ T cell activation (CD38+ ICOS+), which correlated with the level of B cell maturation. The magnitude of specific B cell amplification in the LO chip was higher than in 2D and 3D static cultures at day 6, showing the added value of 3D perfused culture for the induction of recall responses. Interestingly, the perfusion of mRNA-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines also led to strong B cell maturation and specific B cell amplification, indicating that mRNA-derived spike could be expressed and efficiently presented in the LO chip. Conclusion(s): We developed a versatile Lymphoid Organ-Chip model suitable for the rapid evaluation of B cell recall responses. The model is responsive to protein and mRNA-encoded antigens, highlighting its potential in the evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine boosting strategies.
ABSTRACT
Bats are natural reservoirs for numerous coronaviruses, including the potential ancestor of SARS-CoV-2. Knowledge concerning the interaction of coronaviruses and bat cells is, however, sparse. There is thus a need to develop bat cellular models to understand cell tropism, viral replication and virus-induced cell responses. Here, we report the first molecular study of SARS-CoV-2 infection in chiropteran cells. We investigated the ability of primary cells from Rhinolophus and Myotis species, as well as of established and novel cell lines from Myotis myotis, Eptesicus serotinus, Tadarida brasiliensis and Nyctalus noctula, to support SARS-CoV-2 replication. None of these cells were permissive to infection, not even the ones expressing detectable levels of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), which serves as the viral receptor in many mammalian species including humans. The resistance to infection was overcome by expression of human ACE2 (hACE2) in three cell lines, suggesting that the restriction to viral replication was due to a low expression of bat ACE2 (bACE2) or absence of bACE2 binding in these cells. By contrast, multiple restriction factors to viral replication exist in the three N. noctula cells since hACE2 expression was not sufficient to permit infection. Infectious virions were produced but not released from hACE2-transduced M. myotis brain cells. E. serotinus brain cells and M. myotis nasal epithelial cells expressing hACE2 efficiently controlled viral replication, which correlated with a potent interferon response. Together, our data highlight the existence of species-specific molecular barriers to viral replication in bat cells. Our newly developed chiropteran cellular models are useful tools to investigate the interplay between viruses belonging to the SARS-CoV- 2 lineage and their natural reservoir, including the identification of factors responsible for viral restriction.
ABSTRACT
Background: More than 10% of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 experience a Long COVID syndrome, characterized by the persistence of a diverse array of symptoms where fatigue predominates. The role of the adaptive immune response in Long COVID remains poorly understood, with contrasting hypotheses suggesting either an insufficient antiviral response or an excessive immune response that would trigger autoimmune damage. To address this issue, we set to characterize humoral and cellular responses in Long COVID patients prior to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Methods: Long COVID patients (n=36) were included based on (1) an initial SARS-CoV-2 infection documented by PCR or the conjunction of two major signs of COVID-19 and (2) the persistence or resurgence of symptoms for over 3 months. They were compared to convalescent COVID patients with resolved symptoms (n=23) and uninfected control individuals (n=20). IgG and IgA antibodies specific to the SARS-CoV-2 spike were detected by a sensitive S-flow assay, which measures antibody binding to spike-expressing 293T cells. For CD4+ T cell response analyses, cytokine production was measured by intracellular staining on primary T cell lines stimulated by immunodominant peptides derived from the S, M, and N viral proteins. Results: Antibody analyses revealed either strong or very low/undetectable amounts of spike-specific IgG in sera from Long COVID patients, thus distinguishing a seropositive and a seronegative group. Seropositive Long COVID patients (n=21) showed strong CD4 responses that tended to be of higher magnitude than those of convalescents (P<0.05 for 2 immunodominant peptides). In contrast, seronegative Long COVID patients (n=15) showed low or undetectable CD4+ T cells responses, with 4/15 patients showing responses above those observed in healthy donors. CD4+ T cell responses correlated with spike-specific IgG responses in seropositive Long COVID patients (P≤0.002) but not in convalescents, pointing to differences in immune memory persistence. Conclusion: These findings highlight divergent adaptive immune responses among Long COVID patients, with a group characterized by seroconversion and particularly strong CD4+ T cell responses, and a second group characterized by low or undetectable antibody and cellular responses. Further studies are warranted to determine whether the etiology and the duration of symptoms differ in these two groups of Long COVID patients.
ABSTRACT
Introduction L’émergence de nouvelles souches du SARS-CoV-2, telles que le variant Delta, présentant une réplication virale augmentée et la capacité d’échapper à la réponse immune soulève des inquiétudes chez les patients immunodéprimés. Cette étude avait pour objectif d’évaluer le taux de séroconversion, de neutralisation de différents variants, et la réponse lymphocytaire T en réponse à la vaccination par le BNT162b2 chez des patients avec maladies auto-immunes en fonction des traitements reçus. Patients et méthodes Étude prospective monocentrique réalisée à l’Hôpital Cochin (Paris) incluant des patients avec maladies auto-immunes traités par immunosuppresseurs et/ou immunomodulateurs, et des professionnels de santé comme contrôles. Les cas et les contrôles étaient exclus s’ils avaient une sérologie Covid-19 positive à l’inclusion. Le critère de jugement principal était la proportion d’anticorps anti-Spike et les titres de neutralisation croisée contre les variants Alpha et Delta à 3 mois (après deux doses de vaccin). Les critères de jugements secondaires étaient la réponse lymphocytaire T spécifique, la proportion d’infections à SARS-CoV-2 symptomatiques et la tolérance du vaccin. Résultats Soixante-quatre cas et 32 contrôles avec un âge médian respectif de 56 (39,5-59,5) et 52 (37,8-66,3) ans étaient inclus. Quatre groupes de traitements étaient défini: patients traités par rituximab (n=22), methotrexate (n=16), immunosuppresseurs conventionnels hors methotrexate (n=19), patients recevant des traitements connus pour ne pas avoir d’impact sur la réponse vaccinale (n=7). L’ensemble des cas avaient une production diminuée et retardée d’IgG et d’IgA anti-spike après vaccination par le BNT162b2, ceci de façon plus prononcée dans le groupe rituximab. Alors que 2 doses de vaccin induisaient une réponse humorale neutralisante contre les variants Alpha et Delta chez 100 % des contrôles, un seul patient sous rituximab (5 %) neutralisait Alpha et aucun Delta. Les autres groupes de traitements avaient une activité neutralisante partielle contre Alpha, et significativement diminuée contre Delta. Les réponses lymphocytaires T spécifiques étaient similaires entre les contrôles et les cas, à l’exception des patients sous metrotrexate qui avaient une réponse complètement abrogée après 1 dose et considérablement diminuée après 2 doses. Après 3 mois de suivi, 2 patients traités par rituximab présentaient une infection symptomatique peu sévère à SARS-CoV-2, 4 à 7jours après la seconde dose de vaccin. Quatre patients (6,3 %) présentaient une poussée de leur maladie auto-immune conduisant à une modification thérapeutique. Conclusion Le rituximab et le methotrexate impactent de façon différente l’immunogénicité du vaccin BNT162b2, en altérant respectivement les réponses humorales et cellulaires. Le variant Delta échappe complètement à la réponse humorale chez les patients traités par rituximab. Ces résultats soulignent la nécéssité de protocoles vaccinaux particuliers et d’autres traitements préventifs de l’infection dans cette population de patients.